The Elusive Boundaries of Humanity. Research on Anthropomorphization and Infrahumanization
Keywords:
anthropomorphism, dehumanisation, infrahumanisation, essentialismAbstract
This article presents different theoretical and methodological approaches to current research on anthropomorphism, infrahumanisation and dehumanisation. In the majority of studies,humanness is defined in an essentialistic way, as a number of specific and universal traits,which are ascribed to anthropomorphised objects and denied to dehumanised people.Analysing pros and cons of this approach and presenting the results of studies related to it,the article exposes additional aspects of humanness, which should be taken into account byfuture research. An attempt is also made at providing an alternative approach, other thanessentialism, to these problems.References
Bain, P., Park, J., Kwok, C., Haslam, N. (2009). Attributing human uniqueness and human nature to cultural groups: Distinct forms of subtle dehumanization. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12 (6), 789-805.
Bastian, B., Crimston, D. (2014). Self-dehumanization. TPM, 21 (3), 1-10. DOI: 10.4473/XXXX.
Bastian, B., Haslam, N. (2010). Excluded from humanity: The dehumanizing effects of social ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46 (1), 107-113.
Bilewicz, M., Imhoff, R., Drogosz, M. (2011). The humanity of what we eat: Conceptions of human uniqueness among vegetarians and omnivores. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 201-209.
Bilewicz, M., Mikolajczak, M., Kumagai, T., Castano, E. (2010). Which emotions are uniquely human? Understanding of emotion words cross three cultures. W: B. Bokus (red.), Studies in the psychology of language and communication (s. 275-283). Warszawa: Matrix.
Caprara, G.V., Fida, R., Vecchione, M., Tramontano, C., Barbaranelli, C. (2009). Assessing civic moral disengagement: dimensionality and construct validity. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 504-509.
Cortes, B.P., Demoulin, S., Rodriguez, R.T., Rodriguez, A.P., Leyens, J.P. (2005). Infrahumanization or familiarity? Attribution of uniquely human emotions to the self, the ingroup, and the outgroup. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 253-263.
Costello, K., Hodson, G. (2009). Exploring the roots of dehumanization: the role of animal-human similarity in promoting immigrant humanization. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 13 (1), 3-22.
Cuddy, A.J.C., Rock, M.S., Norton, M.I. (2007). Aid in the aftermath of hurricane Katrina: Inferences of secondary emotions and intergroup helping. Group Processes Intergroup Relations, 10 (1), 107-118.
Demoulin, S., Leyens, J.P., Paladino, M.P., Rodriguez, R.T., Rodriguez, A.P., Dovidio, J.F. (2004). Dimensions of “uniquely” and “nonuniquely” human emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 18,71-96.
Demoulin, S., Saroglou, V., Van Pachterbeke, M. (2008). Infra-humanizing others, supra-humanizing gods: The emotional hierarchy. Social Cognition, 26, 235-247.
Epley, N., Akalis, S., Waytz, A., Cacioppo, J.T. (2008). Creating social connection through inferential reproduction: Loneliness and perceived agency in gadgets, gods, and greyhounds. Psychological science, 19 (2), 114-120.
Epley, N., Schroeder, J., Waytz, A. (2013). Motivated mind perception: Treating pets as people and people as animals. W: S. Gervais (red.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 60 (s. 127-152). New York: Springer.
Epley, N., Waytz, A., Cacioppo, J.T. (2007). On seeing human: A three-factor theory of anthropomorphism. Psychological Review, 114 (4), 864-886.
Glasersfeld, E. von (1996). Farewell to objectivity. Systems Research, 13 (3), 279-286.
Guthrie, S.E. (1993). Faces in the clouds: A new theory of religion. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Haslam, N., Bain, P., Douge, L., Lee, M., Bastian, B. (2005). More human than you: Attributing humanness to self and others. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 89, 937-950.
Haslam, N., Bastian, B., Bissett, M. (2004). Essentialist beliefs about personality and their implications. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1661-1673.
Haslam, N., Kashima, Y., Loughnan, S., Shi, J., Suitner C. (2008). Subhuman, inhuman, and superhuman: Contrasting humans with nonhumans in three cultures. Social Cognition, 26 (2), 248-258.
Leyens, J.P., Cortes, B., Demoulin, S., Dovidio, J.F., Fiske, S.T., Gaunt, R., Paladino, M.P., Rodriguez-Perez, A., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Vaes, J. (2003). Emotional prejudice, essentialism, and nationalism: The 2002 Tajfel Lecture. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33,703-717.
Leyens, J.P., Paladino, P.M., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Vaes, J., Demoulin, S., Rodriguez Perez, A., Gaunt, R. (2000). The emotional side of prejudice: The attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups. Personality & Social Psychology Review, 4, 186-197.
Leyens, J.P., Rodriguez-Perez, A., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Gaunt, R., Paladino, M.P., Vaes, J. (2001). Psychological essentialism and the differential attribution of uniquely human emotions to ingroups and outgroups. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 395-411.
Malle, B.F., Knobe, J., O’Laughlin, M.J., Pearce, G.E., Nelson, S.E. (2000). Conceptual structure and social functions of behavior explanations: Beyond person-situation attributions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79 (3), 309-326.
Mudyń, K. (2014). Między dehumanizacją a antropomorfizacją. Powracający problem natury ludzkiej. Czasopismo Psychologiczne, 20 (1), 45-53.
Mudyń, K. (2012). Podmiotowość. Co to może znaczyć? Psychologia Społeczna, 2 (21), 151- 157.
Park, J., Haslam, N., Kashima, J., Norasakkunkit V. (2015). Empathy, culture and self-humanising: Empathising reduces the attribution of greater humanness to the self more in Japan than Australia. International Journal of Psychology, 1-6. DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12164.
Pereira, C., Vala, J., Leyens, J.P. (2009). From infra-humanization to discrimination: The mediation of symbolic threat needs egalitarian norms. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 336-344.
Smith, D.L. (2014). Dehumanization, essentialism, and moral psychology. Philosophy Compass, 9 (11), 814-824.
Vaes, J., Paladino, M.P., Castelli, L., Leyens, J.P., Giovanazzi, A. (2003). On the behavioural consequences of infrahumanization: The implicit role of uniquely human emotions in intergroup relations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 1016-1034.
Viki, G.T. ,Winchester, L., Titshall, L., Chisang, T., Pina, A., Russell, R. (2006). Beyond secondary emotions: The infrahumanization of outgroups using human-related and animal-related words. Social Cognition, 24 (6), 753-775.
Waytz, A., Cacioppo, J.T., Epley, N. (2010). Who sees human? The stability and importance of individual differences in anthropomorphism. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5 (3),219-232.
Bastian, B., Crimston, D. (2014). Self-dehumanization. TPM, 21 (3), 1-10. DOI: 10.4473/XXXX.
Bastian, B., Haslam, N. (2010). Excluded from humanity: The dehumanizing effects of social ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46 (1), 107-113.
Bilewicz, M., Imhoff, R., Drogosz, M. (2011). The humanity of what we eat: Conceptions of human uniqueness among vegetarians and omnivores. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 201-209.
Bilewicz, M., Mikolajczak, M., Kumagai, T., Castano, E. (2010). Which emotions are uniquely human? Understanding of emotion words cross three cultures. W: B. Bokus (red.), Studies in the psychology of language and communication (s. 275-283). Warszawa: Matrix.
Caprara, G.V., Fida, R., Vecchione, M., Tramontano, C., Barbaranelli, C. (2009). Assessing civic moral disengagement: dimensionality and construct validity. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 504-509.
Cortes, B.P., Demoulin, S., Rodriguez, R.T., Rodriguez, A.P., Leyens, J.P. (2005). Infrahumanization or familiarity? Attribution of uniquely human emotions to the self, the ingroup, and the outgroup. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 253-263.
Costello, K., Hodson, G. (2009). Exploring the roots of dehumanization: the role of animal-human similarity in promoting immigrant humanization. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 13 (1), 3-22.
Cuddy, A.J.C., Rock, M.S., Norton, M.I. (2007). Aid in the aftermath of hurricane Katrina: Inferences of secondary emotions and intergroup helping. Group Processes Intergroup Relations, 10 (1), 107-118.
Demoulin, S., Leyens, J.P., Paladino, M.P., Rodriguez, R.T., Rodriguez, A.P., Dovidio, J.F. (2004). Dimensions of “uniquely” and “nonuniquely” human emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 18,71-96.
Demoulin, S., Saroglou, V., Van Pachterbeke, M. (2008). Infra-humanizing others, supra-humanizing gods: The emotional hierarchy. Social Cognition, 26, 235-247.
Epley, N., Akalis, S., Waytz, A., Cacioppo, J.T. (2008). Creating social connection through inferential reproduction: Loneliness and perceived agency in gadgets, gods, and greyhounds. Psychological science, 19 (2), 114-120.
Epley, N., Schroeder, J., Waytz, A. (2013). Motivated mind perception: Treating pets as people and people as animals. W: S. Gervais (red.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 60 (s. 127-152). New York: Springer.
Epley, N., Waytz, A., Cacioppo, J.T. (2007). On seeing human: A three-factor theory of anthropomorphism. Psychological Review, 114 (4), 864-886.
Glasersfeld, E. von (1996). Farewell to objectivity. Systems Research, 13 (3), 279-286.
Guthrie, S.E. (1993). Faces in the clouds: A new theory of religion. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Haslam, N., Bain, P., Douge, L., Lee, M., Bastian, B. (2005). More human than you: Attributing humanness to self and others. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 89, 937-950.
Haslam, N., Bastian, B., Bissett, M. (2004). Essentialist beliefs about personality and their implications. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1661-1673.
Haslam, N., Kashima, Y., Loughnan, S., Shi, J., Suitner C. (2008). Subhuman, inhuman, and superhuman: Contrasting humans with nonhumans in three cultures. Social Cognition, 26 (2), 248-258.
Leyens, J.P., Cortes, B., Demoulin, S., Dovidio, J.F., Fiske, S.T., Gaunt, R., Paladino, M.P., Rodriguez-Perez, A., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Vaes, J. (2003). Emotional prejudice, essentialism, and nationalism: The 2002 Tajfel Lecture. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33,703-717.
Leyens, J.P., Paladino, P.M., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Vaes, J., Demoulin, S., Rodriguez Perez, A., Gaunt, R. (2000). The emotional side of prejudice: The attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups. Personality & Social Psychology Review, 4, 186-197.
Leyens, J.P., Rodriguez-Perez, A., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Gaunt, R., Paladino, M.P., Vaes, J. (2001). Psychological essentialism and the differential attribution of uniquely human emotions to ingroups and outgroups. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 395-411.
Malle, B.F., Knobe, J., O’Laughlin, M.J., Pearce, G.E., Nelson, S.E. (2000). Conceptual structure and social functions of behavior explanations: Beyond person-situation attributions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79 (3), 309-326.
Mudyń, K. (2014). Między dehumanizacją a antropomorfizacją. Powracający problem natury ludzkiej. Czasopismo Psychologiczne, 20 (1), 45-53.
Mudyń, K. (2012). Podmiotowość. Co to może znaczyć? Psychologia Społeczna, 2 (21), 151- 157.
Park, J., Haslam, N., Kashima, J., Norasakkunkit V. (2015). Empathy, culture and self-humanising: Empathising reduces the attribution of greater humanness to the self more in Japan than Australia. International Journal of Psychology, 1-6. DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12164.
Pereira, C., Vala, J., Leyens, J.P. (2009). From infra-humanization to discrimination: The mediation of symbolic threat needs egalitarian norms. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 336-344.
Smith, D.L. (2014). Dehumanization, essentialism, and moral psychology. Philosophy Compass, 9 (11), 814-824.
Vaes, J., Paladino, M.P., Castelli, L., Leyens, J.P., Giovanazzi, A. (2003). On the behavioural consequences of infrahumanization: The implicit role of uniquely human emotions in intergroup relations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 1016-1034.
Viki, G.T. ,Winchester, L., Titshall, L., Chisang, T., Pina, A., Russell, R. (2006). Beyond secondary emotions: The infrahumanization of outgroups using human-related and animal-related words. Social Cognition, 24 (6), 753-775.
Waytz, A., Cacioppo, J.T., Epley, N. (2010). Who sees human? The stability and importance of individual differences in anthropomorphism. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5 (3),219-232.
Downloads
Published
2016-12-01
How to Cite
La Torre, A. (2016). The Elusive Boundaries of Humanity. Research on Anthropomorphization and Infrahumanization. Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis Studia Psychologica, 9(1), 142–155. Retrieved from https://studia-psychologica.uken.krakow.pl/article/view/5629
Issue
Section
Articles
