Interindividual Differences and Intraindividual Variability in Emotional Well-being: an Examination of Gender, Time Perspective and Emotion Regulation
Keywords:
emotional well-being, time perspective, emotional regulation, TaiwanAbstract
This study examined Taiwanese undergraduates’ trajectories of emotional well-being, positive affect, and negative affect over a 16-week period within one semester. The effect of their differences in gender and time perspective profiles on intraindividual variability of weekly affect and associations between time trends of affects and use of two emotional regulation strategies, i.e., reappraisal and suppression, were also investigated. Longitudinal data from 96 undergraduates were analyzed by hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). With time passing, the habitual use of reappraisal was related to the increase of emotional well-being and positive affect and related to the decline of negative affect. By contrast, habitually using suppression was related to an increase of negative affect over time. The main findings also indicated that individuals with balanced time perspective had higher levels of emotional well-being compared to those without balanced time perspective at the baseline of the study. Gender and time perspective profiles were also demonstrated as moderators in the relationship between changes in using emotional regulation strategies on emotional well-being.References
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Bagozzi, E. P., Wong, N., & Yi, Y. (1999). The role of culture and gender in the relationship between positive and negative affect. Cognition and Emotion, 13(6), 641-672.
Balzarotti, S., John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2010). An Italian adaptation of the emotion regulation questionnaire. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 26(1), 61-67.
Boniwell, I., & Zimbardo, P. (2004). Balancing time perspective in pursuit of optimal functioning. In P. A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 165-178). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Boniwell, I., Osin, E., Linley, P. A., & Ivanchenko, G. V. (2010). A question of balance: Time perspective and well-being in British and Russian samples. Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(1), 24-40.
Boyd, J., & Zimbardo, P. (2005). Time perspective, health, and risk taking. In A. Strathman & J. Joireman (Eds.), Understanding behaviour in the context of time: Theory, research, and application (pp. 85-107). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 403-425.
Drake, L., Duncan, E., Sutherland, F., Abernethy, C., & Henry, C. (2008). Time perspective and correlates of well-being. Time & Society, 17(1), 47-61.
Fischer, A. H., Mosquera, P. M. R., van Vianer, A. E. M., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2004). Gender and culture difference in emotion. Emotion, 4(1), 87-94.
Gao,Y. (2011). Time perspective and life satisfaction among young adults in Taiwan. Social Behavior and Personality, 39(6), 729-736.
Gillander, S., Wild, M., Deighan, C., & Gillanders, D. (2008). Emotion regulation, affect, psychosocial functioning, and well-being in hemodialysis patients. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 51(4), 651-662.
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348-362.
Haga, S. M., Kraft, P., & Corby, E. (2009). Emotional regulation: antecedents and well-being outcomes of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression in cross-cultural samples. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10, 271-291.
Holman, E. A., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2009). The social lang of time: The time perspectivesocial network connection. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 31(2), 136-147.
Jovanovic, V. (2011). Do humor styles matter in the relationship between personality and subjective well-being? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 52(5), 502-507.
Keyes, C. L. M. (2000). Subjective change and its consequences for emotional well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 24(2), 67-84.
Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: an integrative review. Cognition and Emotion, 23(1), 4-41.
Kuppens, P., Oravecz, Z., & Tuerlinckx, F. (2010). Feeling change: accounting for individual differences in the temporal dynamics of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(6), 1042-1060.
Lai, Y. (2007). Exploration of relations among optimism/pessimism, coping and positive/negative emotion by hierarchical linear model of the diary method. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Soochow University, Taiwan, ROC.
Liang, E. (2009). A study of the relationship among social support, emotion regulation and life stress of college students. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Taipei Municipal University of Education, Taiwan, ROC.
Lipovčan, L. K., & Prizmić, Z. (2009). Age and gender differences in affect regulation strategies. Drustvena Istrazivanja, 104, 1075-1088.
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Moore, S. A., Zoellner, L. A., & Mollenholt, N. (2008). Are expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal associated with stress-related symptoms? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 993-1000.
Nezlek, J. B., & Kuppens, P. (2008). Regulating positive and negative emotions in daily life. Journal of Personality, 76(30), doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00496.x.
Parkinson, B., & Totterdell, P. (1999). Classifying affect regulation strategies. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 277-303.
Perunovic, W. Q. E., Heller, D., & Rafaeli, E. (2007). Whithin-person changes in the structure of emotion. Psychological Science, 18(7), 607-613.
Quoidbach, J., Berry, E. V., Hansenne, M., & Mikolajczak, M. (2010). Positive emotion regulation and well-being: comparing the impact of savoring and dampening strategies. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(5), 368-373.
Raudenbush, S., & Bryk, A. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: applications and data analysis methods (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Raudenbush, S., Bryk, A., & Congdon, R. (2005). HLM for Windows, Version 6.03. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software International.
Roothman, B., Kirsten, D. K., & Wissing, M. P. (2003). Gender differences in aspects of psychological well-being. South African Journal of Psychology, 33(4), 212-218.
Schimmack, U., Schupp, J., & Wagner, G. G. (2008). The influence of environment and personality on the affective and cognitive component of subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 89(1), 41-60.
Simon, R. W., & Nath, L. E. (2004). Gender and emotion in the United States: do men and women differ in self-reports of feeling and expressive behaviour? American Journal of Sociology, 109(5), 1137-1176.
Spence, G., Oades, L. G., & Caputi, P. (2004). Trait emotional intelligence and goal selfregulation: important predictors of emotional well-being? Personality and Individuals Differences, 37, 449-461.
Tu, C. (2004). A study of procrastination: Scale development and related factors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, National Cheng Chi University, Taiwan, ROC.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
Webster, J. D. (2011). A new measure of time perspective: Initial psychometric findings for the balanced time perspective scale (BTPS). Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 43(2), 111-118.
Wirtz, D., Chiu, C., Diener, E., & Oishi, S. (2009). What constitutes a good life? Cultural differences in the role of positive and negative affect in subjective well-being. Journal of Personality, 77(4), 1167-1195.
Zhang, J. W., Howell, R. T., & Stolarski, M. (2012). Comparing three methods to measure a balanced time perspective: the relationship between a balanced time perspective and subjective well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, doi : 10.1007/s10902-012-9322-x.
Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1271-1288.
Zimbardo, P., & Boyd, J. (2008). The Time Paradox: The New Psychology of Time that Will Change Your Life. New York: Free Press.
Bagozzi, E. P., Wong, N., & Yi, Y. (1999). The role of culture and gender in the relationship between positive and negative affect. Cognition and Emotion, 13(6), 641-672.
Balzarotti, S., John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2010). An Italian adaptation of the emotion regulation questionnaire. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 26(1), 61-67.
Boniwell, I., & Zimbardo, P. (2004). Balancing time perspective in pursuit of optimal functioning. In P. A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 165-178). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Boniwell, I., Osin, E., Linley, P. A., & Ivanchenko, G. V. (2010). A question of balance: Time perspective and well-being in British and Russian samples. Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(1), 24-40.
Boyd, J., & Zimbardo, P. (2005). Time perspective, health, and risk taking. In A. Strathman & J. Joireman (Eds.), Understanding behaviour in the context of time: Theory, research, and application (pp. 85-107). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 403-425.
Drake, L., Duncan, E., Sutherland, F., Abernethy, C., & Henry, C. (2008). Time perspective and correlates of well-being. Time & Society, 17(1), 47-61.
Fischer, A. H., Mosquera, P. M. R., van Vianer, A. E. M., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2004). Gender and culture difference in emotion. Emotion, 4(1), 87-94.
Gao,Y. (2011). Time perspective and life satisfaction among young adults in Taiwan. Social Behavior and Personality, 39(6), 729-736.
Gillander, S., Wild, M., Deighan, C., & Gillanders, D. (2008). Emotion regulation, affect, psychosocial functioning, and well-being in hemodialysis patients. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 51(4), 651-662.
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348-362.
Haga, S. M., Kraft, P., & Corby, E. (2009). Emotional regulation: antecedents and well-being outcomes of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression in cross-cultural samples. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10, 271-291.
Holman, E. A., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2009). The social lang of time: The time perspectivesocial network connection. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 31(2), 136-147.
Jovanovic, V. (2011). Do humor styles matter in the relationship between personality and subjective well-being? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 52(5), 502-507.
Keyes, C. L. M. (2000). Subjective change and its consequences for emotional well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 24(2), 67-84.
Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: an integrative review. Cognition and Emotion, 23(1), 4-41.
Kuppens, P., Oravecz, Z., & Tuerlinckx, F. (2010). Feeling change: accounting for individual differences in the temporal dynamics of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(6), 1042-1060.
Lai, Y. (2007). Exploration of relations among optimism/pessimism, coping and positive/negative emotion by hierarchical linear model of the diary method. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Soochow University, Taiwan, ROC.
Liang, E. (2009). A study of the relationship among social support, emotion regulation and life stress of college students. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Taipei Municipal University of Education, Taiwan, ROC.
Lipovčan, L. K., & Prizmić, Z. (2009). Age and gender differences in affect regulation strategies. Drustvena Istrazivanja, 104, 1075-1088.
McRae, K., Ochsner, K. N. Mauss, I. B., Gabrieli, J. J. D., & Gross, J. J. (2008). Gender differences in emotion regulation: an fMRI study of Cognitive Reappraisal. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 11(2), 143-162.
Meyer, T., Smeets, T., Giesbrecht, T., & Merckelbach, H. (2012). The efficiency of reappraisal and expressive suppression in regulating everyday affective experiences. Psychiatry Research, doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012. 05034.
Moore, S. A., Zoellner, L. A., & Mollenholt, N. (2008). Are expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal associated with stress-related symptoms? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 993-1000.
Nezlek, J. B., & Kuppens, P. (2008). Regulating positive and negative emotions in daily life. Journal of Personality, 76(30), doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00496.x.
Parkinson, B., & Totterdell, P. (1999). Classifying affect regulation strategies. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 277-303.
Perunovic, W. Q. E., Heller, D., & Rafaeli, E. (2007). Whithin-person changes in the structure of emotion. Psychological Science, 18(7), 607-613.
Quoidbach, J., Berry, E. V., Hansenne, M., & Mikolajczak, M. (2010). Positive emotion regulation and well-being: comparing the impact of savoring and dampening strategies. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(5), 368-373.
Raudenbush, S., & Bryk, A. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: applications and data analysis methods (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Raudenbush, S., Bryk, A., & Congdon, R. (2005). HLM for Windows, Version 6.03. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software International.
Roothman, B., Kirsten, D. K., & Wissing, M. P. (2003). Gender differences in aspects of psychological well-being. South African Journal of Psychology, 33(4), 212-218.
Schimmack, U., Schupp, J., & Wagner, G. G. (2008). The influence of environment and personality on the affective and cognitive component of subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 89(1), 41-60.
Simon, R. W., & Nath, L. E. (2004). Gender and emotion in the United States: do men and women differ in self-reports of feeling and expressive behaviour? American Journal of Sociology, 109(5), 1137-1176.
Spence, G., Oades, L. G., & Caputi, P. (2004). Trait emotional intelligence and goal selfregulation: important predictors of emotional well-being? Personality and Individuals Differences, 37, 449-461.
Tu, C. (2004). A study of procrastination: Scale development and related factors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, National Cheng Chi University, Taiwan, ROC.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
Webster, J. D. (2011). A new measure of time perspective: Initial psychometric findings for the balanced time perspective scale (BTPS). Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 43(2), 111-118.
Wirtz, D., Chiu, C., Diener, E., & Oishi, S. (2009). What constitutes a good life? Cultural differences in the role of positive and negative affect in subjective well-being. Journal of Personality, 77(4), 1167-1195.
Zhang, J. W., Howell, R. T., & Stolarski, M. (2012). Comparing three methods to measure a balanced time perspective: the relationship between a balanced time perspective and subjective well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, doi : 10.1007/s10902-012-9322-x.
Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1271-1288.
Zimbardo, P., & Boyd, J. (2008). The Time Paradox: The New Psychology of Time that Will Change Your Life. New York: Free Press.
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Published
2013-12-01
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Gao, Y.-J. (2013). Interindividual Differences and Intraindividual Variability in Emotional Well-being: an Examination of Gender, Time Perspective and Emotion Regulation. Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis Studia Psychologica, 6(1), 58–71. Retrieved from https://studia-psychologica.uken.krakow.pl/article/view/5590
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